2. Key issues and evidence

The section provides an overview of the key transport issues and evidence pertinent to assessing the social and equality impacts associated with protected characteristics (including children and young people) and people experiencing socio-economic disadvantage.

2.1 Protected Characteristic Groups

Age

This section considers children, younger people (aged 16 to 24 years old) and older people (65+ plus years old). Current population estimates (Scottish Government, 2021) show that 64% of the population are between the age of 16 to 64, 19% of the population are 65 and over with 17% under the age of 15.

Recent data shows an increase in the average age of the population through growth of the 65+ age bracket (by an average of 1.82% every year). The over 75 age bracket is expected to grow further due to the large number of people around age 50 in 2016 who will turn 75 by 2041 (this is an increase of approximately 79% by 2041).

Figure 2-1 shows the percentage of age groups per local authority area. Cities have the highest percentages of young working age adults (16 to 39 year olds) while the local authorities with the highest percentage (26%) of people 65 and older are Argyll and Bute, Dumfries and Galloway, Na h-Eileanan Siar and South Ayrshire.

Children and young people

The key factors affecting the ability of children and young people to access transport options are their socio-economic background, geographical location and the accessibility and safety of public transport available. The ability to access safe, convenient and cost-effective transport has an impact on the ability of children and young people to access education, public services and economic opportunities, particularly for children from low-income and deprived socio-economic backgrounds.

The Child Poverty Delivery Plan 2018-2022 sets out the strategy considering how transport policy can best support the delivery of child poverty targets. The Plan recognises the interaction between transport improving access to employment, education, goods and services and the impact of transportation costs on household income.

Consultation undertaken in the development of the Delivery Plan indicated a lack of affordable transport for disadvantaged communities in particular, affecting their family and child access to services such as after-school provision and Jobcentres. One solution the Plan proposes is offering access to free or reduced-price transport through the Young Scot National Entitlement Card to support children and young people affected by poverty.

When looking at the main method of travel to school by SIMD quintiles, those in the lower two quintiles (i.e. the 40% most deprived) are more likely to walk to school or travel by bus while those in the upper two quintiles (i.e. the 40% least deprived) are more likely to travel by car or by school bus.

The urban rural classification also influences the main method of travel to school. School children are shown to be 26.3% more likely to walk to school in ‘Large Urban Areas’ than in ‘Remote Rural Areas’. Conversely, children in ‘Remote Rural Areas’ are much more likely to travel by school bus.

For school children, walking is the most common transport mode for travelling to school (44.8% of modal share) which contrasts with working age adults who primarily travel to work by car or van. Secondary school children are more likely to take the bus than get driven to school (See Figure 2-2). As primarily active travellers, children are more vulnerable to noise and emissions from increasing numbers of vehicles on the roads.

Access to public transport is critical for low-income families to access essential services such as childcare provision or education in addition to opportunities in relation to employment (Transport Scotland, 2020b). Three key issues experienced by low-income families include:

• Cost - the cost of journeys when using public transport is especially crucial when travelling with young children, as high fares can make short journeys expensive;
• Scheduling - inflexible timings often cause problems in terms of shift work, caring responsibilities or connecting between different forms of transport; and
• Infrastructure and Services - multiple providers (e.g. bus companies) often operate separately in both urban and rural areas. As a result, there are significant wait times between services and extended travel durations. Switching between providers can result in multiple expenditures and this is a major concern for low-income families.

Being able to access education, employment and training are critical for low-income households as a means of escaping poverty, as well as for their general wellbeing and improved access to transport is a key enabler to this. (Scottish Government, 2021, Poverty Alliance, 2018).

Affordable and accessible transport can allow children from low-income households to access education and recreational opportunities and allow parents to balance their parenting with their own educational or employment commitments. The NTS’s plan to extend free bus travel to young people aged under 19 will support efforts to reduce child poverty. The cost saved that was previously spent on transport could be re-invested in other activities, such as after school clubs including study and sports clubs.

Furthermore, recent research by Transport Scotland found that travel cost is also an issue for families with young people pursuing further education. Yearly travel passes are expensive and can diminish considerable portions of most household budgets with nearly one third of respondents to a recent survey (31.4%) stating that they pay more than £12 to travel to school, college, or university each week. (Scottish Youth Parliament, 2019).

Overall, 93.3% of school leavers are going to ‘positive destinations’ (e.g. higher education, further education, training, employment, voluntary work and activity agreements). Of these 72.2% were going to higher or further education, 16.7% are “seeking employment” and 4.9% are going into “other destinations” (Scottish Government, 2021). Increasing numbers accessing employment and higher education and decreasing numbers of unemployed people will put additional pressure on transport services during peak periods.

There are notable regional variations with the highest percentage of school leavers entering positive initial destinations coming from “remote” rural areas and the lowest numbers from large urban areas. This is also reflected in the fact that those from the ‘20% Most Deprived’ SIMD Data Zones are also the least likely to go into ‘Positive Destinations’ (90.4%) compared to those from the ‘20% Least Deprived’ areas (97.2%). Notably the ‘20% Most Deprived’ Data Zones are primarily located within Urban Areas and their suburbs (i.e. ‘Large Urban Areas’ and ‘Other Urban Areas’).

Young people in rural areas and island communities are more dependent on public transport, particularly for accessing education and training. However, the high cost and low availability of public transport in rural areas and island communities is a significant challenge for young people and can act as a barrier to their educational choices and overall progress into employment.

For many young people in these areas, having a driving licence and being able to afford a car is essential. Evidence suggests that young adults (17 to 29) in urban areas are travelling less, domestically (particularly driving). Some of the reasons for this include increased urbanisation (and higher density developments), high costs of transport and relying more on technology for social interaction (Chatterjee K. et al., 2018).

Safety is a key issue for children with regards to transport. There were 331 child pedestrian casualties recorded in Scotland in 2019, accounting for 44% of all pedestrian casualties of all ages (Transport Scotland, 2020d). In particular children from deprived areas and certain ethnic groups are more at risk. A key aspect to consider is school transport casualty risk. A recent report shows that for children, the journey home from school in the afternoon has more risks than the journey to school in the morning, especially when walking or cycling (Transport Scotland (2020c).

Furthermore, children killed or injured when walking after leaving a bus or a car are often classed as pedestrian casualties. Safety concerns while accessing public transport facilities, such as at bus or train stations, are heightened for children and young people when unstaffed or in relatively remote locations. Young people or children may also be more vulnerable to safety issues with regards to using taxi or private hire vehicles.

Access to active travel and transport systems that encourage active living and regular physical activity is an important factor in combating obesity as well as having beneficial impacts on mental health and wellbeing. According to the Scottish Health Survey (Scottish Government, 2018) in 2017, 26% of children aged 2-15 were at risk of being overweight, including 13% at risk of obesity.

The proportion of children in the healthy weight range decreased by age, from 73% of children aged 2-6 to 64% of children aged 12-15. This pattern was largely driven by girls, for whom prevalence of healthy weight decreased significantly from 77% for those aged 2-6, to 60% for those aged 12-15 (Scottish Government, 2019).

Environmental impacts of traffic can disproportionately affect children. For example, evidence shows that traffic-related noise is correlated more broadly with lower health-related quality of life in children (Hjortebjerg, D. et al, 2015) and they are more vulnerable to the effects of poor air quality compared to the overall population.

Children are also more vulnerable to the environmental, safety and accessibility impacts of construction activities associated with new transport infrastructure or maintenance projects.

Older people

Mobility, wellbeing and independence are intricately connected especially in later life. Mobility enables older people to engage in everyday activities that enhance wellbeing, whilst independent living provides older people with control over the times and places in which activities are carried out.

Thereby, loss of mobility (from age-related disability or the loss of a driving license) can be perceived as significantly diminishing wellbeing for the elderly. It is recognised that loss of mobility not only compromises physical mobility, but adversely affects fundamental psychology including happiness, life-satisfaction and sense of self.

Older people are more likely to use public transport for journeys in comparison to other age groups (Transport Scotland, 2020) and there has been a 2% increase in the number of people aged 60+ in possession of a concessionary bus pass between 2009 and 2019.

Accessibility issues are more likely to affect older people than other age groups with some older people having limited mobility, hearing or vision impairments, difficulties in understanding information or accessing digital resources and difficulties in alighting to and from transport services or standing for long periods of time. These factors may affect an older person’s ability to safely access and use public transport services or stations, especially if they are unstaffed or in relatively remote locations.

Access to services, such as shops, post offices and healthcare centres as well as visiting friends and relatives can be difficult for older people, particularly in rural areas and island communities. Older people who do not have access to their own car or who have may have lost the right to drive due to eyesight deterioration or other medical problems, are particularly vulnerable to social isolation in rural areas, where services, such as GP surgeries, are too far away to walk, and public transport options are limited.

As such, many older people may rely on community transport services, taxi services or other demand responsive services to meet their accessibility needs. However, this in turn may result in other issues such as safety and access with regards to taxi use or adequate funding and provision of community transport services.

Community transport plays an important role in tackling accessibility issues by providing transport services in certain geographic areas or at certain times of the day when conventional public transport is financially unviable. Research by TS found that 50% of community transport survey respondents noted that their trip could not or would not be made without community transport (Transport Scotland, 2015).

Older people can also be disproportionately affected by environmental impacts of traffic. For example, evidence shows that traffic-related noise has increased health risks for older people (Halonen. J) and they are more vulnerable to the effects of poor air quality compared to the overall population. Older people are also more vulnerable to the environmental, safety and accessibility impacts of construction activities associated with new transport infrastructure or maintenance projects.

Disability

Around 24% of Scotland's population live with a long-term physical or mental health condition that limits their daily life. Yet, those with long-term limiting illnesses, including disabled, people often experience higher levels of inequality. In areas with a higher level of deprivation, more people live with a limiting condition. In the most deprived areas in Scotland, 33% of adults live with a limiting condition, while 15% of adults lived with a limiting condition in the least deprived areas.

Only about 50% of disabled people of working age are in work compared to 80% of non-disabled people of working age. Employment rates vary greatly according to the type of impairment a person has. People with a mental health condition considered a disability have the lowest employment rate of all impairment categories (21%) and the employment rate for people with learning disabilities is 26%.

Accessible transport is an important aspect of enabling disabled people to enjoy equal access to full citizenship. In particular, accessing transport to health and social care is a significant strategic issue for disabled people. The Mobility and Access Committee Scotland (MACS) recommend that transport should be an integral part of the care pathway, facilitated by collaboration between the NHS, Local Authorities and the Scottish Ambulance Service.

In addition, inaccessible and hostile pedestrian environments which inhibit walking and wheeling restrict disabled accessibility. In 2020-2021, the inclusion of ‘wheeling’ at the top of the Transport Hierarchy, alongside walking, signals progress towards equality and inclusion in the vital links of the journey chain. Furthermore, the Scottish Government’s aspiration for a 20% reduction in car kilometres by 2030 poses a risk to disabled people who disproportionately depend on private cars as mobility aids.

There are a range of accessibility issues that may affect a disabled person’s ability to safely access and use public transport services. These include steps or multi layered stations, lack of pre-journey and real time information, inaccessible transport information, lack of trained support staff and lack of accessible connectivity between modes.

Disabled people also indicated their concerns over passenger assistance on rail services during the COVID-19 lockdown. Research revealed that disabled people were being denied assistance during this time making it increasingly difficult for those who needed to travel during the pandemic (Disability Equality Scotland, 2020).

Furthermore, the Scottish Government’s aspiration for a 20% reduction in car kilometres by 2030 could pose a risk to disabled people who disproportionately depend on private cars as mobility aids.

Additional costs associated with accessible transport options generate a monetary barrier for disabled people on low incomes. In terms of bus travel, disabled adults are more likely to use the bus than non-disabled adults (11% of journeys vs 7%) (Transport Scotland, 2021). While the National Concessionary Travel Scheme benefits disabled passengers who qualify, the remaining modes of transport (including community transport services) likely encounter transportation cost issues for disabled people on low incomes.

Disabled people are also twice as likely to use taxi services than non-disabled people, including for work purposes. However, accessibility, safety and cost issues associated with taxis can also provide a barrier for disabled people.

Cycling rates amongst disabled people are lower than those who are not disabled even though 75% of disabled cyclists use their cycle as a mobility aid, with the same proportion finding cycling easier than walking. However, disabled cyclists cite inaccessible cycle infrastructure, cost of non-standard cycles and the inability to cycle in places where a mobility scooter would be allowed as the biggest barriers to cycling (Wheels for Wellbeing, 2008).

Furthermore, some temporary cycling infrastructure and Low-Traffic Neighbourhoods implemented across UK cities during the pandemic have been critiqued for compounding accessibility barriers for disabled cyclists (Transport for All, 2020). Inaccessible and hostile pedestrian environments which inhibit walking and wheeling restrict disabled accessibility. The inclusion of ‘wheeling’ at the top of the Transport Hierarchy, alongside walking, signals progress towards equality and inclusion in the vital links of the journey chain.

Disabled people, including those with weak respiratory systems, or people who suffer health problems more generally associated with weaker lungs may be disproportionately impacted by traffic related emissions and dust as well as dust and emissions created through construction and maintenance of transport infrastructure (Font et al, 2014).

Disability is one of the five groups of protected characteristics covered by the hate crime legislation and disabled people who experience hate crime may often feel fearful in their own homes, communities and using public transport (Glasgow Community and Safety Services, 2013). As part of the Scottish Household Survey (2021) people who had recently used trains and buses were asked about different aspects of their experiences.

Disabled people were generally slightly less positive about their experiences than people who were not disabled, although differences were small for most aspects. The area where the difference was highest was whether individuals felt ‘safe and secure on the [bus or train] at night’ (58% of disabled people agreed they felt safe and secure on the bus at night compared to 73% of non-disabled people) (Transport Scotland, 2021). Safety concerns are heightened if the public transport facilities – such as bus or train stations – are unstaffed or in relatively remote locations.

The SG’s Fairer Scotland for Disabled People Action Plan recognises that a fairer Scotland can only be realised when equal rights are enjoyed by everyone, and the importance of engaging with the lived experience of disabled people to inform evidence and long-term ambitions.

Gender Reassignment

There are no official statistics relating to gender reassignment in Scotland as the Census has previously only collected data relating to sex at birth. However, in the 2022 Census people will be able to self-identify as male or female allowing transgender people to answer a different sex to that on their birth certificate without the need for a Gender Recognition Certificate. A voluntary question about trans status or history will also be included for those aged 16 or over. This will provide an option to identify as non-binary.

There is limited data and evidence is available on the experiences of transgender people. A 2007 survey of 71 transgender people in Scotland found that 30% of respondents had an income of over £20,000, and 48% of respondents had an income under £10,001. While this dataset covers only a small sample, it is considered reasonable to assume that trans people have lower income, and experience structural disadvantages in accessing employment and training opportunities, and are therefore at a higher risk of transport poverty Scottish Transgender Alliance, 2008).

Transgender identity is also one of the five groups or protected characteristics covered by the hate crime legislation. Nearly half of transgender persons in Scotland experienced a transphobic hate crime or incident in the year previous to 2017, according to estimates (Stonewall Scotland, 2017). However, the total number of charges for hate crimes against transgender people comprises 0.8% of all hate crimes.

For many transgender people, concerns about discrimination and harassment are part of their day to day lives, for example more than half of trans people feel uncomfortable using public toilets. Safety concerns for transgender people are heightened if the public transport facilities – such as bus or train stations – are unstaffed, in relatively remote locations.

Pregnancy and Maternity

The number of births registered over recent years has fluctuated, from their lowest point in 2002 (51,270) since records began in 1855, to a high in 2008 (60,041). Since 2008, the number of births has decreased year on year to 51,308 live births in 2018 (the second lowest number of recorded births since 1855). Although the highest number of pregnancies is unsurprisingly in Glasgow and Edinburgh due to the higher number of people generally, the percentage of pregnancies compared to respective female population sizes across all areas remains very similar, at around 2%.

Pregnant women are mobility restricted particularly at later stages of pregnancy and may have concerns or issues with regards to accessibility and safety as well as needing to access facilities whilst feeling nauseous or ill whilst travelling. Safety concerns are heightened if the public transport facilities are unstaffed or in relatively remote locations. Pregnant women are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of air pollution including an increasing risk of miscarriage (Leiser et al, 2019) as well premature births and low birth weights.

Race

The last census (2011) found that most of the population in Scotland was white, with approximately 60% of local authorities having a white population of more than 98%. Only Glasgow has a white population of less than 90%. Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British was the second largest ethnicity in Scotland (2.7%), with the largest populations being in Glasgow (8.1%), Edinburgh (5.5%) and East Renfrewshire (5.1%). The smallest ethnic minority group in Scotland at the last Census was Caribbean or Black, which made up only 0.1% of the total population.

According to the 2011 Census, certain ethnic minority households were most likely to have no car or van available. 51% of African households, 39% of Caribbean or Black households and 36% of Chinese, Chinese Scottish or Chinese British. Other Asian and Arab households did not have access to a car or van. Certain ethnic minority groups are more likely to travel to work by walking or public transport and are also highest amongst those that never cycle for either work or leisure purposes (Transport Scotland, 2020a).

Individuals from BAME communities can experience heightened vulnerability due to the intersectionality of sex and socio-economic disadvantage. In particular, women from BAME backgrounds are concentrated in low-paid and undervalued work, facing intertwined gendered and racial barriers in recruitment, training and development and workplace culture.

A survey by Close the Gap in 2019 revealed that 42% of respondents had experienced harassment or victimisation in the workplace because they are a BAME woman. Additionally, 73% of migrant BAME women had experienced systemic racism when converting their qualifications to UK equivalents due to a range of barriers including the process being too complex (26%) or too long (31%). Thereby, existing research indicates intersectionality and systemic barriers to employment for BAME communities, especially women.

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted existing racial inequalities and exacerbated inequalities in a number of areas. For example, ethnic minority groups, have experienced the economic effects of the crisis harder and are more likely to work in ‘shut down’ sectors, particularly hospitality, and less likely to have savings to rely on (Scottish Government Housing and Social Justice Directorate, 2020). Key workers and those on lower incomes are least likely to work from home, with just 8% of those in the accommodation and food sector in the UK reporting home working (Office for National Statistics, 2021).

Ethnic minority groups, particularly from black backgrounds were over-represented amongst key workers during the COVID-19 pandemic (including those in health and social care, security, wholesale and retail and bus, coach and taxi drivers) (IFS, 2020).

Key workers from ethnic minority groups were often, therefore, less able to alter their working arrangements during lockdowns despite the high risk of infection and increased vulnerability to adverse health effects of COVID-19. As discussed, these groups are also more likely to rely on public transport to access employment than other groups and as such would have relied on the continued operation of bus services during lockdown periods.

Race is one of the five groups or protected characteristics covered by the hate crime legislation and racial crime is the most commonly reported hate crime with 3,249 charges reported in Scotland in 2017-18. Racial discrimination, harassment or abuse can create a barrier to travel for ethnic minority groups who are more likely to be subject to hate crimes. Safety concerns are heightened if the public transport facilities – such as bus and train stations are unstaffed or in relatively remote locations.

Religion or Belief

Religion or belief is one of the five groups or protected characteristics covered by the hate crime legislation. Over a third of the Scottish population (36.6%) do not have a stated religion and this is the largest category within the 2011 census. Next to this 32.4% of people identified the Church of Scotland as their main belief and 15.9% identified the Roman Catholic Church. There are a number of other religious minorities in Scotland, with Muslim being the largest of these at 1.5%.

With regards to poverty, 52% of Muslim adults are living in relative poverty after housing costs (Scottish Government, 2021). This is more than double the percentage of the next highest group ‘Other Religion’ for which 21% are living in relative poverty. Muslims had significantly lower median hourly earnings (£9.19) than those of no religion or Christians (both £11.39). The pay gap between Muslims and those of no religion was as high as 19.3% (EHRC, 2018). As such, this group might be more vulnerable to the costs of transport and face barriers in accessing employment, education, healthcare and other services as a result.

Sectarianism also remains an issue in Scotland. Roman Catholicism is the religion that was most often the subject of reported abuse, with 384 charges for 2016-17. Protestantism and Islam are the religions that were subject to the next highest number of aggravations in 2016-17 followed by Judaism (Scottish Government Justice Analytical Services, 2017).

These groups may have more concerns about experiencing discrimination, assault or harassment on the basis of religious identity whilst using public transport or public transport facilities. Safety concerns are heightened if the public transport facilities are unstaffed or in relatively remote locations.

Sex

Mid-2018 population estimates for Scotland are reported in the Improvement Service’s Community Planning Outcome Profile as 51% of the population being women and 49% men. Although there are more boys born than girls (51% to 49% respectively); women have a longer life expectancy and so, for example, there are a higher number of women compared to men at the ages of 65 and over (55% to 45% respectively) (IS, 2019).

Women are more likely than men to have low incomes, be in part-time and/or insecure work and live in poverty. The SG’s Equality Outcome highlights that access to the labour market is an intersectional issue for women, especially disabled women, older women, minority ethnic women, women from poorer socio-economic backgrounds and women with caring responsibilities. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has increased women’s economic insecurity and time poverty, especially ethnic minority women (Women’s Budget Group, 2020).

Women are more likely to make multi-stop and multi-purpose trips, combining travel to work with trips for other purposes such as taking children to school, looking after family members or shopping and are more likely to walk, be a passenger in a car or take a bus than men (Sustrans, 2018). Therefore, women could benefit from free concessionary bus passes to improve their access to employment, education and training.

Women’s concerns when traveling on public transport largely relate to gender-based violence and assault, including sexual harassment when travelling. The annual instances of all sexual crimes in Scotland, the victims of which are overwhelmingly women, has risen by 90% since 2007/8 to 2018 (Scottish Government Local Government and Communities Directorate, 2018).

There has been an increase in crime rates across Scotland, in part driven by increased awareness and reporting of sexual crimes, the majority of which are experienced by women. In comparison to males, women are more likely to be very or fairly concerned about sexual assault, and they are also less likely to feel very or fairly safe going alone at night (66% compared to 89%). Safety concerns are heightened if the public transport facilities are unstaffed.

Sexual Orientation

In the Scottish Surveys Core Questions 2019, an annual Official Statistics publication, 94.2% of adults identified with being heterosexual, with 2% identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual or other (LGBO). The remaining respondents answered, “Don’t Know”. It is believed that this survey may undercount the number of adults self-identifying as LGBO as they may not feel comfortable with the interviewer (Scottish Government, 2019).

Sexual orientation is one of the five groups of protected characteristics covered by the hate crime legislation and the most pertinent issue faced by this group relates to fears about intimidation, violence and/or abuse. It is estimated that 17% of LGBT people, and one in four disabled LGBT people, experienced a hate crime in the twelve months prior to 2017, an increase from 9% in 2013.

Charges for hate crime charges aggravated by sexual orientation have also increased, despite 87 per cent of homophobic, biphobic or transphobic hate crimes being left unreported (Stonewall Scotland, 2017). LGBT individuals are more likely than heterosexual individuals to have encountered inappropriate sexual behaviour or hate crime while using public transport facilities, including bus and train stations. Safety concerns are heightened if facilities are unstaffed or in relatively remote locations.

Furthermore, according to the Equality Network, 79% of LGBT people in Scotland have experienced prejudice or discrimination in the last year. When it comes to accessing services, one out of every four people has experienced discrimination (Equality Network, 2015).

2.2 Socio-economically disadvantaged groups

Socio-economic inequality is a multi-faceted issue, and in the context of transport, can affect communities that are low-income, deprived, belong to certain social classes and/or experience existing structural and institutional disadvantages. A critical aspect of socio-economic inequality is minimising child and adult poverty, which is key for sustainable and inclusive economic growth.

National trends indicate that income poverty disproportionally impacts groups who face existing structural disadvantages, including disabled people, women and specific ethnic groups. This can lead to poor health and wellbeing outcomes, and detrimentally affect the equality of opportunity a person experiences.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated inequalities for socio-economically disadvantaged groups with evidence showing that inequalities in household income and wealth are anticipated to increase, as is the number of households in poverty. Unequal outcomes could potentially be increased across a range of other areas including health, employment and education outcomes, children’s wellbeing, quality of and access to public services, participation in cultural pursuits and the outdoors, and the quality of local connections and support.

In addition to exacerbating pre-existing inequalities, the COVID-19 crisis has also created new groupings of people who are at risk of disproportionate impact (e.g. the shielding group) and groups facing particular challenges due to the social restrictions imposed in the face of the virus, for example people with learning disabilities or mental health conditions (Scottish Government, 2020).

This sub-section summarises some of the key issues and evidence relating to those who are socio-economically disadvantaged in relation to transport.

Deprivation

The extent of deprivation is measured by the 2020 Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD) (Scottish Government, 2020b). It provides an overall deprivation score for Data Zones across Scotland by building upon a series of domains and sub-domains. These domains include indicators such as health, income, employment, education, exposure to crime, barriers to housing and services, and living environment; and are the key indicators which influence a person’s level of deprivation.

According to the SIMD, in 2020, the most deprived data zones tend to be focussed around urban areas and their suburbs, with the highest percentage of deprivation in Glasgow City and its suburbs (North Lanarkshire and South Lanarkshire) with a combined 41.6% of Scotland’s ‘20% Most Deprived’ Data Zones (See Table 2-1).

Table 2 1 Number of ‘20% Most Deprived’ Data Zones by Local Authority, 2020
Source: Scottish Government (2020) Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD20)

Local Authority Area	No. of '20% most deprived' data zones	National share (%)
Glasgow City	339	24.3%
North Lanarkshire	153	11.0%
Fife	97	7.0%
South Lanarkshire	88	6.3%
North Ayrshire	74	5.3%
City of Edinburgh	71	5.1%
Dundee City	70	5.0%
Renfrewshire	56	4.0%
Inverclyde	51	3.7%
East Ayrshire	51	3.7%
West Dunbartonshire	48	3.4%
Falkirk	35	2.5%
West Lothian	35	2.5%
Highland	30	2.2%
Aberdeen City	29	2.1%
South Ayrshire	28	2.0%
Dumfries and Galloway	19	1.4%
Clackmannanshire	18	1.3%
Stirling	15	1.1%
Argyll and Bute	13	0.9%
Angus	12	0.9%
Perth and Kinross	11	0.8%
Midlothian	10	0.7%
Scottish Borders	9	0.7%
Aberdeenshire	9	0.7%
East Lothian	8	0.6%
East Renfrewshire	7	0.5%
East Dunbartonshire	5	0.4%
Moray	4	0.3%
Na h-Eileanan Siar	0	0.0%
Orkney Islands	0	0.0%
Shetland Islands	0	0.0%

These statistics provide a measure of ‘relative deprivation’, not affluence. As such, it is important to recognise that not every person in a highly deprived area will consider themselves to be deprived and likewise, that there will be some deprived people living in the least deprived areas. In particular, there are likely to be issues relating to transport for those experiencing poverty in less deprived rural areas.

Those in the 10% most deprived areas are also more likely to walk or catch the bus to travel to work or school (Transport Scotland, 2020). However, people living in deprived areas tend to live in more hazardous environments, with greater proximity to high volumes of fast-moving traffic and high levels of on-street parking and, as such, they have higher levels of exposure to road traffic risk.

There is strong relationship between deprivation and pedestrian casualties. In particular, children and young people from deprived areas were found to be involved in traffic injuries, for whom the risk was highest on main roads and on residential roads near shops and leisure services (Christie et al, 2010).

There is a significant causal relationship between increased motorised transport and increased road casualties and deaths: people from deprived neighbourhoods are more likely to be injured or killed as road users and people in the highest socio-economic groups (SEGs 1 & 2) were found to be substantially less at risk of death as car occupants than people in the lower groups (SEGs 4 & 5) (UK Government Office for Science, 2019).

Deprived areas are more likely to suffer from poor air quality (DEFRA, 2006). There is also potential for health inequalities widening in these areas due to emissions being concentrated in the most heavily trafficked roads, which are used more by disadvantaged people as places where they live, work and shop (Lucas et al, 2019).

Climate change can compound poverty and deprivation and, conversely, poverty increases vulnerability to climate impacts.

There is also evidence that some adaptation and mitigation policy can deepen inequity. Lower-income groups living in poorer-quality housing in coastal locations are disproportionately affected by coastal flooding, while disadvantaged groups living in deprived urban areas with the least green space are more vulnerable to pluvial flooding (flooding caused by rainfall) and heatwaves (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2014).

Employment

Transport can act as a key barrier to employment, and most importantly, to better employment (Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2018). It represents a significant cost particularly to those that carry out low-paid, low-skilled or ‘atypical’ work that involved irregular shifts or hours (i.e. standard public transport services are not usually provided during anti-social hours and walking/cycling may be unsafe). ‘In-work’ or working poverty is of particular concern in tackling poverty (Scottish Government Communities Analysis Division, 2019).

Research underlines that while there is a strong relationship between unemployment and poverty in the UK, paid employment is not a guaranteed route out of poverty (Hick & Lanau, 2017 and Ray et al, 2014). The majority of working-age adults (aged 16-64) and children in relative poverty after housing costs in Scotland are now living in households where at least one adult is in paid work (Scottish Government, 2021).

Employment deprivation disproportionally impacts groups who face existing structural disadvantages, including disabled people, women and ethnic minorities. Public Health Scotland (2021) reveal that the ethnicity pay gap for White Ethnic Minority Group is 7.52% when compared with the White Scottish, British and Irish group and 8.38% for Non-White Ethnic Minority Group.

Additionally, access to employment is more limited for individuals with limited resources or in deprived areas. Those experiencing poverty are most likely those in low paid and insecure employment with poor conditions. The unemployed also make up a substantial proportion of those experiencing socio-economic disadvantage.

Research shows that key workers during the COVID-19 pandemic (including those in health and social care, security, wholesale and retail and bus, coach and taxi drivers) were disproportionately represented in the bottom income deciles (IFS, 2020). Women and ethnic minority groups, particularly from black backgrounds were also highly represented amongst key workers.

Key workers and those on lower incomes are least likely to be able to work from home and so were less able to alter their working arrangements during lockdowns. As discussed, these groups are also more likely to rely on bus travel to access employment than other groups and as such would have relied on the continued operation of bus services during the lockdown period.

Income and Transport Poverty

Between 2017 and 2020, it is estimated that 17% of the Scottish population (910,000 people) are living in absolute poverty and another 19% are living in relative poverty (1.03 million people) after housing costs (Scottish Government, 2021). Furthermore, the estimated percentage of Individuals in low income after housing costs who live in families with a disabled person is 22% compared to 16% of those who do not live with a disabled person (Department for Work and Pensions, 2021). Additionally, households with at least one person with a long-term illness or a disability are 50% more likely to be identified to be “not coping” with their finances than those that do not (Scottish Government, 2011).

This relationship between disability and income inequality is further bolstered by data from the Life Opportunities Survey which demonstrates that 42.4% of people who lived in households with a disabled member reported difficulty in “making ends meet” compared to 28.1% of households without (UK Government, 2014). Women, disabled people, certain ethnic minority groups and older people are more likely to live in low-income households than others.

The average weekly household expenditure on transportation and vehicles was £68.20 in 2016-18, accounting for around a seventh of total expenditure. Although it has decreased significantly from a high of over 15% in 2012-14, it still accounts for a large amount of people's income (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 2018).

Figure 2-3 shows the mode of transport by annual net household income and clearly shows a dependency on walking and bus travel for those households in the lowest income brackets. Data from the Community Planning Outcomes Profile shows that 2017/18, the Local Authority Areas with the highest median weekly earnings were East Dunbartonshire and East Renfrewshire (£521 - £560) both of which contain many of Glasgow’s suburbs and commuter towns.

The areas with the lowest median earnings per week were Dumfries and Galloway, Argyll and Bute, Moray and Orkney (£350 - £400) which are all primary rural areas. The areas with the second highest median weekly earnings were all primarily areas within commuting distance of Aberdeen City, City of Edinburgh or Glasgow City (£481 - £520).

Furthermore, there is an overlap of areas with the highest percentage of child poverty (Glasgow, Dundee, Clackmannanshire, West Dunbartonshire, Inverclyde, North Ayrshire and East Ayrshire) and areas with the highest percentage of working age people receiving out of work benefits (Glasgow, West Dunbartonshire, Inverclyde, North Ayrshire, Dundee, Clackmannanshire, East Ayrshire, North Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire).